Grade 12
  1. Solid state  1.1. Classification of solids  1.2. Crystal Lattice and Unit Cell  1.3. Packing Efficiency  1.4. Density of unit cell  1.5. Imperfections in solids (point and line defects)  1.6. Electrical Properties of Solids (Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors)  1.7. Magnetic Properties of Solids (Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic and Ferromagnetic Materials)
  2. Solution  2.1. Types of Solutions (Homogeneous and Heterogeneous)  2.2. Expressing concentration of solutions (mass %, volume %, molarity, molality, normality, mole fraction)  2.3. Solubility of solids and gases in liquids (Henry's law)  2.4. Raoult's Law and Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions  2.5. Syndrome properties  2.6. Abnormal molar mass and Van't Hoff factor
  3. Electrochemistry  3.1. Electrochemical cells (galvanic and electrolytic cells)  3.2. Galvanic cell and EMF of the cell  3.3. Standard electrode potential and electrochemical series  3.4. Nernst equation and its applications  3.5. Conductivity and electrolytic cells (specific, molar and equivalent conductivity)  3.6. Kohlrausch's law and its applications  3.7. Batteries (primary and secondary cells)  3.8. Corrosion and its prevention
  4. Chemical kinetics  4.1. Rate of chemical reaction  4.2. Factors affecting the reaction rate (concentration, temperature, catalyst, surface area)  4.3. Order and molecularity of the reaction  4.4. Integrated Rate Equations (Zero, First and Second Order)  4.5. Half-life of a reaction  4.6. Collision theory and activation energy  4.7. Arrhenius equation and its applications
  5. Surface chemistry  5.1. Adsorption and its types (Physicosorption and Chemisorption)  5.2. Catalysis and its types (homogeneous and heterogeneous)  5.3. Colloids and their properties (Tyndall effect, Brownian motion, coagulation)  5.4. Emulsions and gels  5.5. Applications of Colloids
  6. General principles and processes of separation of elements  6.1. Presence of metals and minerals  6.2. Concentration of ores (gravity separation, froth flotation, magnetic separation)  6.3. Extraction of raw metals (roasting, calcination, reduction)  6.4. Thermodynamic and electrochemical principles of metallurgy  6.5. Refining of metals
  7. P-block elements  7.1. Group 15 elements (nitrogen and phosphorus)  7.2. Group 16 Elements (Oxygen, Sulphur and their Compounds)  7.3. Group 17 Elements (Halogens and their Compounds)  7.4. Group 18 Elements  7.5. Properties and Trends in p-Block Elements  7.6. Important compounds of p-block elements (ammonia, phosphine, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid)  7.7. Interhalogen compounds and their applications
  8. d-block and f-block elements  8.1. General Properties of Transition Metals  8.2. Properties of Inner Transition Metals (Lanthanoids and Actinoids)  8.3. Lanthanoid and actinoid contractions  8.4. Coordination Chemistry of d-Block Elements
  9. Coordination compounds  9.1. Werner's theory and modern concepts  9.2. Coordination number and type of ligand  9.3. Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds  9.4. Isomerism (geometrical and optical) in coordination compounds  9.5. Bonding in Coordination Compounds (Valence Bond Theory and Crystal Field Theory)  9.6. Stability and applications of coordination compounds in medicine and industry
  10. Haloalkanes and haloarenes  10.1. Classification and nomenclature of haloalkanes and haloarenes  10.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes  10.3. Mechanism of Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions (SN1 and SN2)  10.4. Uses and environmental effects (ozone depletion, CFCs)
  11. Alcohol, phenol and ether  11.1. Structure and classification of alcohols, phenols and ethers  11.2. Preparation and properties of alcohols  11.3. Preparation and properties of phenol  11.4. Preparation and properties of ethers  11.5. Chemical Reactions and Uses
  12. Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids  12.1. Structure and nomenclature in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids  12.2. Preparation and properties of aldehydes and ketones  12.3. Chemical reactions in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids (nucleophilic addition, oxidation and reduction)  12.4. Preparation and Properties of Carboxylic Acids  12.5. Chemical Reactions and Uses of Carboxylic Acids
  13. Nitrogen-containing organic compounds  13.1. Amines (classification, structure, basicity)  13.2. Preparation and properties of amines  13.3. Reactions of Amines (Diazotization, Carbylamine Reaction)  13.4. Diazonium salts and their applications in paint industry
  14.1. Carbohydrates (classification and properties)  14.2. Proteins (Structure and Function)  14.3. Enzymes (Mechanism and Function)  14.4. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)  14.5. Vitamins and hormones
  15. Polymer  15.1. Classification of Polymers (Addition, Condensation, Copolymers)  15.2. Types of polymerization (free radical, ionic, condensation)  15.3. Important Polymers and Their Uses  15.4. Biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymers
  16. Chemistry in Everyday Life  16.1. Drugs and their classification (analgesics, antipyretics, antibiotics, antacids)  16.2. Chemicals in food and cosmetics (preservatives, artificial sweeteners, antioxidants)  16.3. Cleaning agents and detergents (soaps, synthetic detergents, surfactants)  16.4. Environmental Chemistry (Pollution, Green Chemistry, Sustainable Chemistry)

Grade 12 ↓


d-block and f-block elements


d-block and f-block elements play a vital role in the world of chemistry. These elements lie in the middle of the periodic table and are known for their fascinating properties, complex electron configurations, and significant contributions to both nature and industry. Let us dive deep into the details of these blocks and understand their significance.

What are the d-block elements?

The d-block elements are also known as transition metals. They occupy the central block of the periodic table and include elements from groups 3 to 12. They are called d-block elements because the last electron enters the d-subshell. This results in partially filled d-orbitals.

Characteristics of d-block elements

  • Variable oxidation states: Most of the d-block elements show multiple oxidation states because the electrons of both s and d orbitals can participate in bonding.
  • Coloured Compounds: Many d-block elements form coloured compounds. This is due to d-d transition of electrons, where an electron jumps between different d-orbitals.
  • Complex formation: Transition metals often form complex compounds. They have vacant d-orbitals that can accept lone pairs of electrons from ligands.
  • High melting and boiling points: These elements generally have high melting and boiling points because of strong metallic bonds.
  • Metallic Properties: d-block elements are metals and show typical metallic properties, such as high density, hardness, and good conductors of electricity.

Examples of d-block elements

Iron (Fe), copper (Cu), and nickel (Ni) are some examples of d-block elements. They have many uses in everyday life. For example, iron is used in construction, copper is used in electrical wiring, and nickel is used to make stainless steel.

Electronic configuration

The general electronic configuration of d-block elements can be represented as [noble gas] (n-1)d 1-10 ns 0-2. Let us take a closer look at this with the example of Iron (Fe):

        Fe: [Ar] 3d 6 4s 2

Here, the 3d subshell is filled before the 4s subshell despite the 4s subshell being the outermost shell. Such unusual filling is due to the lower energy levels of the d-orbitals after the 3p orbitals.

Crystal field theory

Crystal field theory (CFT) provides a model to explain the colour and magnetic properties of d-block elements. When ligands approach a central metal atom or ion, the degenerate d-orbitals split into two groups with different energies. This scenario leads to observable properties such as colour. In many transition metal compounds, the energy difference between these two groups, known as the crystal field splitting energy, corresponds to visible light and leads to the absorption and emission of particular colours.

Visual example:

Ligand d xy, d yz, d zx d x 2 -y 2, d z 2

Applications of d-block elements

  • Catalysis: Transition metals such as nickel, platinum, and palladium act as excellent catalysts. They provide surfaces for reactions to proceed more efficiently.
  • Alloys: Metals such as nickel and chromium are used to make stainless steel, which is important for construction and manufacturing.
  • Biological systems: Iron is important in hemoglobin, which facilitates the transport of oxygen in the blood. Many enzymes also contain transition metals as cofactors.
  • Jewellery and Coins: Silver and gold are d-block elements widely used in making jewellery and coins due to their lustre and corrosion resistance.

What are the f-block elements?

The f-block elements are also known as inner transition metals. They are located at the bottom of the periodic table and consist of two series: lanthanides and actinides. The last electron in these elements enters the f-orbital, hence the name f-block. They usually appear in two separate rows below the main periodic table.

Distinctive features of f-block elements

  • Lanthanides: These include elements with atomic numbers 57 (lanthanum) to 71 (lutetium). They are known for their similar properties, which is why they are often called "rare earth elements."
  • Actinides: These include elements from 89 (actinium) to 103 (lawrencium). Many actinides are radioactive and are used in nuclear energy.
  • Higher Electronegativity: The f-block elements generally exhibit higher electronegativities than the d-block elements.
  • Formation of Complexes: f-block elements form complex ions, though similar to those formed by d-block, they show differences in coordination numbers and geometry.

Examples of f-block elements

Cerium (Ce), neodymium (Nd), and uranium (U) are examples of f-block elements. Cerium is used in flint for cigarette lighters, while neodymium is important in making powerful magnets. Uranium is an important element in nuclear reactors and weapons.

Electronic configuration

The f-block has its own distinct electronic configuration pattern, represented as [noble gas] (n-2)f 1-14 (n-1)d 0-1 ns 2. Let's look at an example with uranium (U):

        U: [Rn] 5f 3 6d 1 7s 2

Oxidation states

The lanthanides predominantly display a +3 oxidation state, although other states are also observed in certain elements. The actinides display a much wider range of oxidation states, often between +3 and +6, due to the involvement of f, d, and s orbitals.

Importance and applications

  • Nuclear energy: Uranium and thorium are part of the actinide series and are important for nuclear reactors and energy production.
  • Magnets: Neodymium is used to make powerful permanent magnets, which are used in a variety of applications from headphones to motors.
  • Technology: Rare earth elements are integral in the manufacturing of electronics such as smartphones and computers.
  • Luminophore uses: Some lanthanides are used as phosphors in a variety of lighting and display devices.

Periodic table position

The d-block is spread across the fourth to seventh periods and the third to twelfth groups, while the f-block is accommodated separately, usually at the bottom of the main table. Let us clarify their position:

Views table

D F

d-block: Located in the centre, they connect the s-block and p-block elements, and show mainly transitional characteristics.

f-block: Although these are represented separately, they ideally fit into the sequence with the d-block, between the elements of group 3 and 4.

Closing concepts

The d-block and f-block elements are dynamic and multifaceted, with wide-ranging properties and uses. They are not only fundamental to chemistry, but are also vital to a variety of modern technologies and industries. Understanding their properties and potential can lead to advances in chemistry and related fields.


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