Grade 12
  1. Solid state  1.1. Classification of solids  1.2. Crystal Lattice and Unit Cell  1.3. Packing Efficiency  1.4. Density of unit cell  1.5. Imperfections in solids (point and line defects)  1.6. Electrical Properties of Solids (Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors)  1.7. Magnetic Properties of Solids (Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic and Ferromagnetic Materials)
  2. Solution  2.1. Types of Solutions (Homogeneous and Heterogeneous)  2.2. Expressing concentration of solutions (mass %, volume %, molarity, molality, normality, mole fraction)  2.3. Solubility of solids and gases in liquids (Henry's law)  2.4. Raoult's Law and Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions  2.5. Syndrome properties  2.6. Abnormal molar mass and Van't Hoff factor
  3. Electrochemistry  3.1. Electrochemical cells (galvanic and electrolytic cells)  3.2. Galvanic cell and EMF of the cell  3.3. Standard electrode potential and electrochemical series  3.4. Nernst equation and its applications  3.5. Conductivity and electrolytic cells (specific, molar and equivalent conductivity)  3.6. Kohlrausch's law and its applications  3.7. Batteries (primary and secondary cells)  3.8. Corrosion and its prevention
  4. Chemical kinetics  4.1. Rate of chemical reaction  4.2. Factors affecting the reaction rate (concentration, temperature, catalyst, surface area)  4.3. Order and molecularity of the reaction  4.4. Integrated Rate Equations (Zero, First and Second Order)  4.5. Half-life of a reaction  4.6. Collision theory and activation energy  4.7. Arrhenius equation and its applications
  5. Surface chemistry  5.1. Adsorption and its types (Physicosorption and Chemisorption)  5.2. Catalysis and its types (homogeneous and heterogeneous)  5.3. Colloids and their properties (Tyndall effect, Brownian motion, coagulation)  5.4. Emulsions and gels  5.5. Applications of Colloids
  6. General principles and processes of separation of elements  6.1. Presence of metals and minerals  6.2. Concentration of ores (gravity separation, froth flotation, magnetic separation)  6.3. Extraction of raw metals (roasting, calcination, reduction)  6.4. Thermodynamic and electrochemical principles of metallurgy  6.5. Refining of metals
  7. P-block elements  7.1. Group 15 elements (nitrogen and phosphorus)  7.2. Group 16 Elements (Oxygen, Sulphur and their Compounds)  7.3. Group 17 Elements (Halogens and their Compounds)  7.4. Group 18 Elements  7.5. Properties and Trends in p-Block Elements  7.6. Important compounds of p-block elements (ammonia, phosphine, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid)  7.7. Interhalogen compounds and their applications
  8. d-block and f-block elements  8.1. General Properties of Transition Metals  8.2. Properties of Inner Transition Metals (Lanthanoids and Actinoids)  8.3. Lanthanoid and actinoid contractions  8.4. Coordination Chemistry of d-Block Elements
  9. Coordination compounds  9.1. Werner's theory and modern concepts  9.2. Coordination number and type of ligand  9.3. Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds  9.4. Isomerism (geometrical and optical) in coordination compounds  9.5. Bonding in Coordination Compounds (Valence Bond Theory and Crystal Field Theory)  9.6. Stability and applications of coordination compounds in medicine and industry
  10. Haloalkanes and haloarenes  10.1. Classification and nomenclature of haloalkanes and haloarenes  10.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes  10.3. Mechanism of Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions (SN1 and SN2)  10.4. Uses and environmental effects (ozone depletion, CFCs)
  11. Alcohol, phenol and ether  11.1. Structure and classification of alcohols, phenols and ethers  11.2. Preparation and properties of alcohols  11.3. Preparation and properties of phenol  11.4. Preparation and properties of ethers  11.5. Chemical Reactions and Uses
  12. Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids  12.1. Structure and nomenclature in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids  12.2. Preparation and properties of aldehydes and ketones  12.3. Chemical reactions in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids (nucleophilic addition, oxidation and reduction)  12.4. Preparation and Properties of Carboxylic Acids  12.5. Chemical Reactions and Uses of Carboxylic Acids
  13. Nitrogen-containing organic compounds  13.1. Amines (classification, structure, basicity)  13.2. Preparation and properties of amines  13.3. Reactions of Amines (Diazotization, Carbylamine Reaction)  13.4. Diazonium salts and their applications in paint industry
  14.1. Carbohydrates (classification and properties)  14.2. Proteins (Structure and Function)  14.3. Enzymes (Mechanism and Function)  14.4. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)  14.5. Vitamins and hormones
  15. Polymer  15.1. Classification of Polymers (Addition, Condensation, Copolymers)  15.2. Types of polymerization (free radical, ionic, condensation)  15.3. Important Polymers and Their Uses  15.4. Biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymers
  16. Chemistry in Everyday Life  16.1. Drugs and their classification (analgesics, antipyretics, antibiotics, antacids)  16.2. Chemicals in food and cosmetics (preservatives, artificial sweeteners, antioxidants)  16.3. Cleaning agents and detergents (soaps, synthetic detergents, surfactants)  16.4. Environmental Chemistry (Pollution, Green Chemistry, Sustainable Chemistry)

Grade 12 → P-block elements ↓


Important compounds of p-block elements (ammonia, phosphine, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid)


Introduction

The p-block elements are found in groups 13 through 18 in the periodic table. These elements include important nonmetals such as nitrogen, oxygen, and chlorine. Compounds formed by p-block elements are widely used in a variety of industries and in everyday life. This article explores four important compounds of p-block elements: ammonia (NH3), phosphine (PH3), sulfuric acid (H2SO4), and hydrochloric acid (HCl).

Ammonia (NH3)

Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3. It is a colorless gas with a pungent odor. Ammonia is highly soluble in water and is an important industrial chemical.

Structure of ammonia

           H
           ,
      H---N---H

The nitrogen atom forms three single covalent bonds with the hydrogen atoms, resulting in a trigonal pyramidal shape.

Properties of ammonia

  • Ammonia is a gas at room temperature.
  • It is lighter than air and its molecular weight is about 17 g/mol.
  • The smell of ammonia is strong and irritating.
  • It is highly soluble in water, and forms ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH).

Uses of ammonia

Ammonia is widely used in various areas such as:

  • Agriculture: Ammonia is widely used as a fertilizer in the form of ammonia nitrate, ammonia sulphate and urea.
  • Household cleaning: Ammonia is a common ingredient in cleaning solutions due to its effectiveness in dissolving grease and grime.
  • Industrial applications: Ammonia is used in the production of nitric acid, explosives, dyes and pharmaceuticals.

Phosphine (PH3)

Phosphine is a compound of phosphorus and hydrogen with the formula PH3. It is a colorless gas with a strong, unpleasant odor similar to that of garlic or rotten fish.

Structure of phosphine

          H
          ,
     H---P---H

Phosphorus forms three single covalent bonds with hydrogen atoms, resulting in a trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry.

Properties of phosphine

  • Phosphine is a gas at room temperature.
  • It is slightly soluble in water.
  • Phosphine is extremely toxic.
  • It is flammable, and burns with a bright flame.

Uses of phosphine

Phosphine is used in many areas:

  • Fumigation: Phosphine is used in agriculture as a fumigant to protect stored grains from insect attacks.
  • Synthesis: It serves as an intermediate in the production of organophosphorus compounds.

Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)

Sulfuric acid is a highly corrosive oily liquid composed of sulfur, oxygen, and hydrogen with the formula H2SO4. It is known as one of the strongest mineral acids.

Structure of sulfuric acid

         Hey
         ,
     H - O - S - O - H
         ,
         Hey

The sulfur atom is tetrahedrally surrounded by oxygen atoms with two hydroxyl groups attached to it.

Properties of sulfuric acid

  • It is a dense, oily liquid at room temperature.
  • Sulfuric acid is highly soluble in water, releasing heat in the process.
  • It can cause severe burns if it comes in contact with skin.
  • Sulfuric acid is a strong oxidizing agent.

Uses of sulfuric acid

Sulfuric acid has many industrial and laboratory uses:

  • Fertilizer: It is used in the manufacture of phosphate fertilizers.
  • Battery acid: Sulfuric acid is used in lead-acid batteries.
  • Industrial processes: It is used as a reactant in petroleum refining, wastewater processing, and chemical synthesis.

Hydrochloric acid (HCl)

Hydrochloric acid is a solution of hydrogen chloride gas in water, with the formula HCl. It is a strong, corrosive acid commonly used in laboratories and industry.

Structure of hydrochloric acid

     H – Cl

The HCl molecule has a single covalent bond between the hydrogen and chlorine atoms.

Properties of hydrochloric acid

  • It is a colorless liquid with a pungent odor.
  • Hydrochloric acid is highly soluble in water.
  • Its conductivity is high due to the ionization of H+ and Cl-.
  • Hydrochloric acid is a strong, corrosive acid.

Uses of hydrochloric acid

Hydrochloric acid is used in a variety of applications:

  • Cleaning agent: It is used to clean metals and remove rust.
  • Food processing: Hydrochloric acid is used in the production of food additives and in the processing of gelatin.
  • Industrial processes: It is used in leather processing, ore refining, and chloride production.

Conclusion

Compounds of p-block elements such as ammonia, phosphine, sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid play a vital role in chemical industries, agricultural practices and household applications. Understanding their properties and uses gives us an idea about their importance in our daily lives.


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Properties and Trends in p-Block Elements
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Interhalogen compounds and their applications

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Important compounds of p-block elements (ammonia, phosphine, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid)

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