Grade 12
  1. Solid state  1.1. Classification of solids  1.2. Crystal Lattice and Unit Cell  1.3. Packing Efficiency  1.4. Density of unit cell  1.5. Imperfections in solids (point and line defects)  1.6. Electrical Properties of Solids (Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors)  1.7. Magnetic Properties of Solids (Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic and Ferromagnetic Materials)
  2. Solution  2.1. Types of Solutions (Homogeneous and Heterogeneous)  2.2. Expressing concentration of solutions (mass %, volume %, molarity, molality, normality, mole fraction)  2.3. Solubility of solids and gases in liquids (Henry's law)  2.4. Raoult's Law and Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions  2.5. Syndrome properties  2.6. Abnormal molar mass and Van't Hoff factor
  3. Electrochemistry  3.1. Electrochemical cells (galvanic and electrolytic cells)  3.2. Galvanic cell and EMF of the cell  3.3. Standard electrode potential and electrochemical series  3.4. Nernst equation and its applications  3.5. Conductivity and electrolytic cells (specific, molar and equivalent conductivity)  3.6. Kohlrausch's law and its applications  3.7. Batteries (primary and secondary cells)  3.8. Corrosion and its prevention
  4. Chemical kinetics  4.1. Rate of chemical reaction  4.2. Factors affecting the reaction rate (concentration, temperature, catalyst, surface area)  4.3. Order and molecularity of the reaction  4.4. Integrated Rate Equations (Zero, First and Second Order)  4.5. Half-life of a reaction  4.6. Collision theory and activation energy  4.7. Arrhenius equation and its applications
  5. Surface chemistry  5.1. Adsorption and its types (Physicosorption and Chemisorption)  5.2. Catalysis and its types (homogeneous and heterogeneous)  5.3. Colloids and their properties (Tyndall effect, Brownian motion, coagulation)  5.4. Emulsions and gels  5.5. Applications of Colloids
  6. General principles and processes of separation of elements  6.1. Presence of metals and minerals  6.2. Concentration of ores (gravity separation, froth flotation, magnetic separation)  6.3. Extraction of raw metals (roasting, calcination, reduction)  6.4. Thermodynamic and electrochemical principles of metallurgy  6.5. Refining of metals
  7. P-block elements  7.1. Group 15 elements (nitrogen and phosphorus)  7.2. Group 16 Elements (Oxygen, Sulphur and their Compounds)  7.3. Group 17 Elements (Halogens and their Compounds)  7.4. Group 18 Elements  7.5. Properties and Trends in p-Block Elements  7.6. Important compounds of p-block elements (ammonia, phosphine, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid)  7.7. Interhalogen compounds and their applications
  8. d-block and f-block elements  8.1. General Properties of Transition Metals  8.2. Properties of Inner Transition Metals (Lanthanoids and Actinoids)  8.3. Lanthanoid and actinoid contractions  8.4. Coordination Chemistry of d-Block Elements
  9. Coordination compounds  9.1. Werner's theory and modern concepts  9.2. Coordination number and type of ligand  9.3. Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds  9.4. Isomerism (geometrical and optical) in coordination compounds  9.5. Bonding in Coordination Compounds (Valence Bond Theory and Crystal Field Theory)  9.6. Stability and applications of coordination compounds in medicine and industry
  10. Haloalkanes and haloarenes  10.1. Classification and nomenclature of haloalkanes and haloarenes  10.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes  10.3. Mechanism of Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions (SN1 and SN2)  10.4. Uses and environmental effects (ozone depletion, CFCs)
  11. Alcohol, phenol and ether  11.1. Structure and classification of alcohols, phenols and ethers  11.2. Preparation and properties of alcohols  11.3. Preparation and properties of phenol  11.4. Preparation and properties of ethers  11.5. Chemical Reactions and Uses
  12. Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids  12.1. Structure and nomenclature in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids  12.2. Preparation and properties of aldehydes and ketones  12.3. Chemical reactions in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids (nucleophilic addition, oxidation and reduction)  12.4. Preparation and Properties of Carboxylic Acids  12.5. Chemical Reactions and Uses of Carboxylic Acids
  13. Nitrogen-containing organic compounds  13.1. Amines (classification, structure, basicity)  13.2. Preparation and properties of amines  13.3. Reactions of Amines (Diazotization, Carbylamine Reaction)  13.4. Diazonium salts and their applications in paint industry
  14.1. Carbohydrates (classification and properties)  14.2. Proteins (Structure and Function)  14.3. Enzymes (Mechanism and Function)  14.4. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)  14.5. Vitamins and hormones
  15. Polymer  15.1. Classification of Polymers (Addition, Condensation, Copolymers)  15.2. Types of polymerization (free radical, ionic, condensation)  15.3. Important Polymers and Their Uses  15.4. Biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymers
  16. Chemistry in Everyday Life  16.1. Drugs and their classification (analgesics, antipyretics, antibiotics, antacids)  16.2. Chemicals in food and cosmetics (preservatives, artificial sweeteners, antioxidants)  16.3. Cleaning agents and detergents (soaps, synthetic detergents, surfactants)  16.4. Environmental Chemistry (Pollution, Green Chemistry, Sustainable Chemistry)

Grade 12 → Alcohol, phenol and ether ↓


Structure and classification of alcohols, phenols and ethers


Introduction

Alcohols, phenols, and ethers are a class of organic compounds that contain oxygen atoms. These compounds are widely used in various chemical industries and have considerable importance in both synthetic and medicinal chemistry. The following text will explore the structure and classification of these compounds.

Alcohol

Structure of alcohol

Alcohols are organic compounds containing a hydroxyl group (-OH) bonded to a saturated carbon atom. The general formula for alcohols is R-OH, where R indicates an alkyl group. The simplest alcohol is methanol with the formula CH3OH.

Classification of alcohols

Alcohols can be classified based on the number of hydroxyl groups and the type of carbon atom to which the hydroxyl group is attached.

Classification based on the number of hydroxyl groups

  • Monohydric alcohol: It contains one hydroxyl group.
    Example: C2H5OH (Ethanol)
  • Dihydric alcohol: It contains two hydroxyl groups.
    Example: HO-CH2-CH2-OH (Ethylene glycol)
  • Trihydric alcohol: It contains three hydroxyl groups.
    Example: C3H5(OH)3 (Glycerol)
  • Polyhydric alcohols: Contain more than three hydroxyl groups.
    Example: Sugar Alcohols like Sorbitol

Classification based on the type of carbon chain

  • Primary alcohols: The carbon atom bonded to -OH group is bonded to only one other carbon atom.
    Example: CH3CH2OH (Ethanol)
  • Secondary alcohols: The carbon atom bonded to -OH group is bonded to two other carbon atoms.
    Example: CH3CHOHCH3 (Isopropanol)
  • Tertiary alcohols: The carbon atom bonded to -OH group is bonded to three other carbon atoms.
    Example: (CH3)3COH (Tertiary Butanol)

Phenol

Structure of phenol

Phenols are similar to alcohols, but are characterized by having a -OH group directly bonded to an aromatic hydrocarbon ring, i.e., a benzene ring. The simplest phenol is phenol itself, with the formula C6H5OH. Phenols have different properties due to their aromatic structure that significantly affects their acidity and reactivity.

Oh Structure of Phenolic Compound

Classification of phenols

Phenols are usually classified based on the number of hydroxyl groups they contain:

  • Monohydric phenol: It contains one hydroxyl group.
    Example: C6H5OH (Phenol)
  • Dihydric phenol: It contains two hydroxyl groups.
    Example: C6H4(OH)2 (Catechol)
  • Trihydric phenol: It contains three hydroxyl groups.
    Example: C6H3(OH)3 (Pyrogallol)

Ether

Structure of ether

Ethers are compounds in which the oxygen atom is attached to two alkyl or aryl groups. The general formula for an ether is RO-R', where R and R' may be the same or different. The simplest ether is dimethyl ether, with the formula CH3OCH3.

R Hey R' General structure of ether

Classification of ethers

Ethers are mainly classified into two types depending on the nature of alkyl or aryl groups attached to the oxygen atom:

Simple (symmetric) ether

Simple ethers have identical alkyl or aryl groups on either side of the oxygen atom.

Example: C2H5OC2H5 (Diethyl ether)

Mixed (asymmetric) ethers

Mixed ethers contain different alkyl or aryl groups attached to the oxygen atom.

Example: CH3OC2H5 (Ethyl methyl ether)

Electronic effects in alcohols, phenols and ethers

The structure and classification of alcohols, phenols, and ethers are strongly influenced by the electronic effects of the hydroxyl and ether groups:

Inductive effect

Inductive effect is the electron-withdrawing or electron-donating effect that is transmitted through sigma bonds due to the difference in electronegativities of the atoms. -OH group is usually the electron-withdrawing group due to the electronegativities of oxygen.

Resonance effect

-OH group in phenol is involved in resonance with the benzene ring, which increases the acidity of phenol compared to alcohol. This resonance is depicted below along with the resonance structure:

Oh Resonance structure of phenol

Acidity and alkalinity

Understanding the acidity and basicity of these compounds is important to predict their behavior in chemical reactions:

Acidity

  • Alcohols: Alcohols have weak acidic properties. Acidity decreases as the size of the alkyl group increases due to increased electron-donating inductive effect.
  • Phenol: Phenols are more acidic than alcohols because stability is provided by resonance in the phenoxide ion after losing a hydrogen ion.

Basicity

  • Ether does not have acidic hydrogen but can act as a Lewis base because of the lone pair of electrons on the oxygen atom.
  • Alcohols, due to having lone pairs of electrons can also act as Lewis bases.

Applications and uses

Alcohols, phenols, and ethers are versatile compounds that have a wide range of applications. Consider the following for each type:

Alcohol

  • Alcohol is used as a solvent in the manufacture of varnishes and perfumes.
  • They are also used as preservatives for biological samples.
  • Alcohols such as ethanol are used as fuel and in the production of alcoholic beverages.

Phenol

  • Phenol is used in the production of plastics, such as Bakelite, and as a precursor to several drugs.
  • They act as antiseptic and disinfectant.

Ether

  • Ether is used as an industrial solvent for fats, oils, waxes, and gums.
  • They are used as anesthetics, especially in the form of diethyl ether.

Conclusion

The study of the structure and classification of alcohols, phenols and ethers reveals the complexity and versatility of these organic compounds. Their wide range of applications in daily life and industry underlines their importance. Understanding their structural properties provides valuable information about their reactivity and interactions in various chemical processes.


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Structure and classification of alcohols, phenols and ethers

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