Grade 12
  1. Solid state  1.1. Classification of solids  1.2. Crystal Lattice and Unit Cell  1.3. Packing Efficiency  1.4. Density of unit cell  1.5. Imperfections in solids (point and line defects)  1.6. Electrical Properties of Solids (Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors)  1.7. Magnetic Properties of Solids (Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic and Ferromagnetic Materials)
  2. Solution  2.1. Types of Solutions (Homogeneous and Heterogeneous)  2.2. Expressing concentration of solutions (mass %, volume %, molarity, molality, normality, mole fraction)  2.3. Solubility of solids and gases in liquids (Henry's law)  2.4. Raoult's Law and Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions  2.5. Syndrome properties  2.6. Abnormal molar mass and Van't Hoff factor
  3. Electrochemistry  3.1. Electrochemical cells (galvanic and electrolytic cells)  3.2. Galvanic cell and EMF of the cell  3.3. Standard electrode potential and electrochemical series  3.4. Nernst equation and its applications  3.5. Conductivity and electrolytic cells (specific, molar and equivalent conductivity)  3.6. Kohlrausch's law and its applications  3.7. Batteries (primary and secondary cells)  3.8. Corrosion and its prevention
  4. Chemical kinetics  4.1. Rate of chemical reaction  4.2. Factors affecting the reaction rate (concentration, temperature, catalyst, surface area)  4.3. Order and molecularity of the reaction  4.4. Integrated Rate Equations (Zero, First and Second Order)  4.5. Half-life of a reaction  4.6. Collision theory and activation energy  4.7. Arrhenius equation and its applications
  5. Surface chemistry  5.1. Adsorption and its types (Physicosorption and Chemisorption)  5.2. Catalysis and its types (homogeneous and heterogeneous)  5.3. Colloids and their properties (Tyndall effect, Brownian motion, coagulation)  5.4. Emulsions and gels  5.5. Applications of Colloids
  6. General principles and processes of separation of elements  6.1. Presence of metals and minerals  6.2. Concentration of ores (gravity separation, froth flotation, magnetic separation)  6.3. Extraction of raw metals (roasting, calcination, reduction)  6.4. Thermodynamic and electrochemical principles of metallurgy  6.5. Refining of metals
  7. P-block elements  7.1. Group 15 elements (nitrogen and phosphorus)  7.2. Group 16 Elements (Oxygen, Sulphur and their Compounds)  7.3. Group 17 Elements (Halogens and their Compounds)  7.4. Group 18 Elements  7.5. Properties and Trends in p-Block Elements  7.6. Important compounds of p-block elements (ammonia, phosphine, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid)  7.7. Interhalogen compounds and their applications
  8. d-block and f-block elements  8.1. General Properties of Transition Metals  8.2. Properties of Inner Transition Metals (Lanthanoids and Actinoids)  8.3. Lanthanoid and actinoid contractions  8.4. Coordination Chemistry of d-Block Elements
  9. Coordination compounds  9.1. Werner's theory and modern concepts  9.2. Coordination number and type of ligand  9.3. Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds  9.4. Isomerism (geometrical and optical) in coordination compounds  9.5. Bonding in Coordination Compounds (Valence Bond Theory and Crystal Field Theory)  9.6. Stability and applications of coordination compounds in medicine and industry
  10. Haloalkanes and haloarenes  10.1. Classification and nomenclature of haloalkanes and haloarenes  10.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes  10.3. Mechanism of Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions (SN1 and SN2)  10.4. Uses and environmental effects (ozone depletion, CFCs)
  11. Alcohol, phenol and ether  11.1. Structure and classification of alcohols, phenols and ethers  11.2. Preparation and properties of alcohols  11.3. Preparation and properties of phenol  11.4. Preparation and properties of ethers  11.5. Chemical Reactions and Uses
  12. Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids  12.1. Structure and nomenclature in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids  12.2. Preparation and properties of aldehydes and ketones  12.3. Chemical reactions in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids (nucleophilic addition, oxidation and reduction)  12.4. Preparation and Properties of Carboxylic Acids  12.5. Chemical Reactions and Uses of Carboxylic Acids
  13. Nitrogen-containing organic compounds  13.1. Amines (classification, structure, basicity)  13.2. Preparation and properties of amines  13.3. Reactions of Amines (Diazotization, Carbylamine Reaction)  13.4. Diazonium salts and their applications in paint industry
  14.1. Carbohydrates (classification and properties)  14.2. Proteins (Structure and Function)  14.3. Enzymes (Mechanism and Function)  14.4. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)  14.5. Vitamins and hormones
  15. Polymer  15.1. Classification of Polymers (Addition, Condensation, Copolymers)  15.2. Types of polymerization (free radical, ionic, condensation)  15.3. Important Polymers and Their Uses  15.4. Biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymers
  16. Chemistry in Everyday Life  16.1. Drugs and their classification (analgesics, antipyretics, antibiotics, antacids)  16.2. Chemicals in food and cosmetics (preservatives, artificial sweeteners, antioxidants)  16.3. Cleaning agents and detergents (soaps, synthetic detergents, surfactants)  16.4. Environmental Chemistry (Pollution, Green Chemistry, Sustainable Chemistry)

Grade 12 → Solution ↓


Syndrome properties


Fusion properties are properties of a solution that depend on the number of solute particles in the solution, not on the identity of the solute particles. These properties are interesting because they show how the addition of solute to the solvent affects certain properties of the solution. The main fusion properties include:

  • Relative lowering of vapour pressure
  • Boiling point elevation
  • Freezing point depression
  • Osmotic pressure

Relative lowering of vapour pressure

When a non-volatile solute dissolves in a solvent, the vapour pressure of the solvent over the solution decreases. This is called the relative lowering of vapour pressure. Let's go through some basic concepts and examples to see how this works.

Understanding vapor pressure

Vapor pressure is the pressure of a vapor that is in equilibrium with the liquid or solid form. It is a measure of the tendency of molecules in the liquid state to move into the vapor state. In a pure solvent, vapor pressure is determined by the strength of intermolecular forces.

Effect of solute on vapor pressure

When a solute is added to a solvent, it occupies space on the surface of the liquid, reducing the number of solvent molecules that go into the vapor state.

The decrease in vapor pressure can be described mathematically using Raoult's law:

P₁ = X₁ * P₁⁰

Where:

  • P₁ is the vapour pressure of the solvent in the solution
  • X₁ is the mole fraction of the solvent
  • P₁⁰ is the vapor pressure of the pure solvent

The relative loss of vapour pressure is given by:

(P₁⁰ - P₁) / P₁⁰ = X₂

Where X₂ is the mole fraction of the solute.

Pure Solvent Solution

Boiling point elevation

The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapour pressure is equal to the external pressure. When a solute is dissolved in a solvent, the boiling point of the solution is higher than the boiling point of the pure solvent. This phenomenon is known as boiling point elevation.

Explanation

As already mentioned, adding a solute to a solvent decreases the vapour pressure of the solvent. As a result, the temperature must be increased to achieve a vapour pressure equal to the external pressure, which will increase the boiling point.

The increase in boiling point can be expressed as:

ΔT_b = i * K_b * m

Where:

  • ΔT_b is the boiling point elevation
  • i is the van 't Hoff factor (the number of particles that dissolve in the solute)
  • K_b is the ebullioscopic constant of the solvent
  • m is the molality of the solution

Example

If you dissolve table salt (NaCl) in water, the boiling point of the solution will be higher than that of pure water.

The Van't Hoff factor for NaCl is 2 because it dissociates into two ions: Na⁺ and Cl⁻.

Freezing point depression

The freezing point of a liquid is the temperature at which the liquid and solid phases are in equilibrium at atmospheric pressure. Adding a solute to a solvent lowers the freezing point of the solvent. This is called freezing point depression.

Explanation

When a solute is added, the vapor pressure of the solution is lower at any temperature. As a result, colder temperatures are needed to reach equilibrium between the solid and liquid states.

The formula for freezing point depression is:

ΔT_f = i * K_f * m

Where:

  • ΔT_f is the freezing point depression
  • i is the van 't Hoff factor
  • K_f is the cryoscopic constant of the solvent
  • m is the molality of the solution

Example

Antifreeze in car radiators is a classic example of freezing point depression, where ethylene glycol (the solute) is mixed with water (the solvent) to lower its freezing point.

Osmotic pressure

Osmotic pressure is the pressure required to prevent the flow of solvent molecules from a dilute solution to a concentrated solution through a semipermeable membrane. It is one of the important properties related to the fusion properties of solutions.

Concept

When two solutions with different concentrations are separated by a semipermeable membrane, the solvent molecules move towards the higher concentration part. This movement continues until pressure is applied to stop this process; this pressure is osmotic pressure.

Osmotic pressure is given by the formula:

π = i * M * R * T

Where:

  • π is osmotic pressure
  • i is the van 't Hoff factor
  • M is the molarity of the solution
  • R is the universal gas constant
  • T is the temperature in Kelvin

Example

In biological systems, osmotic pressure is important. For example, kidney function relies on the principle of osmosis to filter waste from the blood.

Conclusion

Fusion properties are important in understanding how solutes affect the properties of solvents when forming solutions. By mastering concepts such as vapor pressure lowering, boiling point raising, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure, we can better understand practical applications in everyday life, such as antifreeze, desalination processes, and biological systems such as kidney function.


Grade 12 → 2.5


U
username
0%
completed in Grade 12

← Prev (2.4)
Raoult's Law and Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions
Next (2.6) →
Abnormal molar mass and Van't Hoff factor

Comments 



Syndrome properties

https://www.chemistryelite.com/g12/2.5?ceal=en