Grade 12
  1. Solid state  1.1. Classification of solids  1.2. Crystal Lattice and Unit Cell  1.3. Packing Efficiency  1.4. Density of unit cell  1.5. Imperfections in solids (point and line defects)  1.6. Electrical Properties of Solids (Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors)  1.7. Magnetic Properties of Solids (Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic and Ferromagnetic Materials)
  2. Solution  2.1. Types of Solutions (Homogeneous and Heterogeneous)  2.2. Expressing concentration of solutions (mass %, volume %, molarity, molality, normality, mole fraction)  2.3. Solubility of solids and gases in liquids (Henry's law)  2.4. Raoult's Law and Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions  2.5. Syndrome properties  2.6. Abnormal molar mass and Van't Hoff factor
  3. Electrochemistry  3.1. Electrochemical cells (galvanic and electrolytic cells)  3.2. Galvanic cell and EMF of the cell  3.3. Standard electrode potential and electrochemical series  3.4. Nernst equation and its applications  3.5. Conductivity and electrolytic cells (specific, molar and equivalent conductivity)  3.6. Kohlrausch's law and its applications  3.7. Batteries (primary and secondary cells)  3.8. Corrosion and its prevention
  4. Chemical kinetics  4.1. Rate of chemical reaction  4.2. Factors affecting the reaction rate (concentration, temperature, catalyst, surface area)  4.3. Order and molecularity of the reaction  4.4. Integrated Rate Equations (Zero, First and Second Order)  4.5. Half-life of a reaction  4.6. Collision theory and activation energy  4.7. Arrhenius equation and its applications
  5. Surface chemistry  5.1. Adsorption and its types (Physicosorption and Chemisorption)  5.2. Catalysis and its types (homogeneous and heterogeneous)  5.3. Colloids and their properties (Tyndall effect, Brownian motion, coagulation)  5.4. Emulsions and gels  5.5. Applications of Colloids
  6. General principles and processes of separation of elements  6.1. Presence of metals and minerals  6.2. Concentration of ores (gravity separation, froth flotation, magnetic separation)  6.3. Extraction of raw metals (roasting, calcination, reduction)  6.4. Thermodynamic and electrochemical principles of metallurgy  6.5. Refining of metals
  7. P-block elements  7.1. Group 15 elements (nitrogen and phosphorus)  7.2. Group 16 Elements (Oxygen, Sulphur and their Compounds)  7.3. Group 17 Elements (Halogens and their Compounds)  7.4. Group 18 Elements  7.5. Properties and Trends in p-Block Elements  7.6. Important compounds of p-block elements (ammonia, phosphine, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid)  7.7. Interhalogen compounds and their applications
  8. d-block and f-block elements  8.1. General Properties of Transition Metals  8.2. Properties of Inner Transition Metals (Lanthanoids and Actinoids)  8.3. Lanthanoid and actinoid contractions  8.4. Coordination Chemistry of d-Block Elements
  9. Coordination compounds  9.1. Werner's theory and modern concepts  9.2. Coordination number and type of ligand  9.3. Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds  9.4. Isomerism (geometrical and optical) in coordination compounds  9.5. Bonding in Coordination Compounds (Valence Bond Theory and Crystal Field Theory)  9.6. Stability and applications of coordination compounds in medicine and industry
  10. Haloalkanes and haloarenes  10.1. Classification and nomenclature of haloalkanes and haloarenes  10.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes  10.3. Mechanism of Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions (SN1 and SN2)  10.4. Uses and environmental effects (ozone depletion, CFCs)
  11. Alcohol, phenol and ether  11.1. Structure and classification of alcohols, phenols and ethers  11.2. Preparation and properties of alcohols  11.3. Preparation and properties of phenol  11.4. Preparation and properties of ethers  11.5. Chemical Reactions and Uses
  12. Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids  12.1. Structure and nomenclature in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids  12.2. Preparation and properties of aldehydes and ketones  12.3. Chemical reactions in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids (nucleophilic addition, oxidation and reduction)  12.4. Preparation and Properties of Carboxylic Acids  12.5. Chemical Reactions and Uses of Carboxylic Acids
  13. Nitrogen-containing organic compounds  13.1. Amines (classification, structure, basicity)  13.2. Preparation and properties of amines  13.3. Reactions of Amines (Diazotization, Carbylamine Reaction)  13.4. Diazonium salts and their applications in paint industry
  14.1. Carbohydrates (classification and properties)  14.2. Proteins (Structure and Function)  14.3. Enzymes (Mechanism and Function)  14.4. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)  14.5. Vitamins and hormones
  15. Polymer  15.1. Classification of Polymers (Addition, Condensation, Copolymers)  15.2. Types of polymerization (free radical, ionic, condensation)  15.3. Important Polymers and Their Uses  15.4. Biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymers
  16. Chemistry in Everyday Life  16.1. Drugs and their classification (analgesics, antipyretics, antibiotics, antacids)  16.2. Chemicals in food and cosmetics (preservatives, artificial sweeteners, antioxidants)  16.3. Cleaning agents and detergents (soaps, synthetic detergents, surfactants)  16.4. Environmental Chemistry (Pollution, Green Chemistry, Sustainable Chemistry)

Grade 12 → General principles and processes of separation of elements ↓


Presence of metals and minerals


The Earth's crust is made up of a variety of minerals that come in a variety of forms. These minerals include various metals, ranging from commonly used metals such as iron and aluminum to rarer metals such as platinum and gold. Understanding the occurrence of metals and minerals is important, as it forms the basis of mining and extraction processes to obtain these valuable resources.

What are minerals?

Minerals are naturally occurring substances that have a certain chemical composition and a crystalline structure. They are formed through geological processes over millions of years. Each mineral has its own unique properties such as colour, hardness, crystalline form and lustre, which help in its identification.

Formation of minerals

Minerals are usually formed through various natural processes such as:

  • Crystallization from magma: When the magma cools, different minerals crystallize at different temperatures, forming solid deposits.
  • Evaporation: Under certain conditions minerals can crystallize from the evaporation of saline water.
  • Metamorphism: High pressure and temperature conditions can change existing rock into new types of minerals.

Types of minerals

Minerals may be broadly classified based on their composition as follows:

  • Silicate minerals: These make up the largest group and include minerals such as quartz and feldspar.
  • Non-silicate minerals: These include carbonates (e.g., calcite), oxides (e.g., hematite), sulfates (e.g., gypsum) and halides (e.g., halite).
Minerals

Occurrence and distribution of metals

Metals are typically extracted from minerals called ores. An ore is defined as a mineral deposit that can be mined, processed, and transported to market so that it can be extracted economically. Not all metals are found in ore deposits; some occur freely in nature such as gold, copper, and platinum.

Common metals and their sources

Let's take a look at some common metals and where they're typically obtained from:

  • Iron (Fe): Extracted from ores such as hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4).
  • Aluminium (Al): Obtained from bauxite, which consists mainly of gibbsite (Al(OH)3).
  • Copper (Cu): Found in minerals such as chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) and bornite (Cu5FeS4).
  • Gold (Au): Gold is usually found in its native form, often alloyed with silver.
metal ores Iron Aluminium copper

Extraction of metals from their ores

The process of extracting metals from their ores involves several main steps. It usually includes mining, beneficiation, and extraction:

  • Mining: The first step is to extract the ore from the Earth's surface. Depending on the location of the ore this can be done through open pit mining or underground mining.
  • Beneficiation: This stage involves the concentration of the ore. The ore is crushed and pulverized to release the valuable minerals from the waste. This can be achieved through various methods such as flotation, magnetic separation, and gravity separation.
  • Extraction: In this stage, the metal is chemically extracted from the concentrated ore. Processes such as smelting and electrolysis are typically used.

Smelting

Smelting is the primary process used to extract metals from their ores. It involves the use of high temperatures and a reducing agent to convert the ore into its metallic form. For example, iron extraction from hematite involves the use of a blast furnace.

Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) → 2Fe(l) + 3CO(g)

Electrolysis

Electrolysis is necessary for some electropositive metals, such as aluminum. During electrolysis, an electric current is passed through the molten ore to separate the metal.

Al2O3 + 3C → 4Al + 3CO2

Recycling of metals

Recycling plays an important role in reducing the environmental impact of metal extraction. It conserves natural resources and saves energy. Almost all types of metals can be recycled, reducing the need to mine new ores.

Environmental impact of metal extraction

Metal extraction can have significant impacts on the environment. These include habitat destruction due to mining, air and water pollution from smelting, and greenhouse gas emissions. Adopting sustainable practices and advanced technologies is important to reduce these impacts.

Conclusion

Understanding where metals and minerals are located is the key to efficiently exploiting these valuable resources and minimising environmental impact. Advances in technology and sustainable practices are vital as we continue to rely on these natural resources to meet human needs.


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Presence of metals and minerals

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