Grade 12
  1. Solid state  1.1. Classification of solids  1.2. Crystal Lattice and Unit Cell  1.3. Packing Efficiency  1.4. Density of unit cell  1.5. Imperfections in solids (point and line defects)  1.6. Electrical Properties of Solids (Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors)  1.7. Magnetic Properties of Solids (Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic and Ferromagnetic Materials)
  2. Solution  2.1. Types of Solutions (Homogeneous and Heterogeneous)  2.2. Expressing concentration of solutions (mass %, volume %, molarity, molality, normality, mole fraction)  2.3. Solubility of solids and gases in liquids (Henry's law)  2.4. Raoult's Law and Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions  2.5. Syndrome properties  2.6. Abnormal molar mass and Van't Hoff factor
  3. Electrochemistry  3.1. Electrochemical cells (galvanic and electrolytic cells)  3.2. Galvanic cell and EMF of the cell  3.3. Standard electrode potential and electrochemical series  3.4. Nernst equation and its applications  3.5. Conductivity and electrolytic cells (specific, molar and equivalent conductivity)  3.6. Kohlrausch's law and its applications  3.7. Batteries (primary and secondary cells)  3.8. Corrosion and its prevention
  4. Chemical kinetics  4.1. Rate of chemical reaction  4.2. Factors affecting the reaction rate (concentration, temperature, catalyst, surface area)  4.3. Order and molecularity of the reaction  4.4. Integrated Rate Equations (Zero, First and Second Order)  4.5. Half-life of a reaction  4.6. Collision theory and activation energy  4.7. Arrhenius equation and its applications
  5. Surface chemistry  5.1. Adsorption and its types (Physicosorption and Chemisorption)  5.2. Catalysis and its types (homogeneous and heterogeneous)  5.3. Colloids and their properties (Tyndall effect, Brownian motion, coagulation)  5.4. Emulsions and gels  5.5. Applications of Colloids
  6. General principles and processes of separation of elements  6.1. Presence of metals and minerals  6.2. Concentration of ores (gravity separation, froth flotation, magnetic separation)  6.3. Extraction of raw metals (roasting, calcination, reduction)  6.4. Thermodynamic and electrochemical principles of metallurgy  6.5. Refining of metals
  7. P-block elements  7.1. Group 15 elements (nitrogen and phosphorus)  7.2. Group 16 Elements (Oxygen, Sulphur and their Compounds)  7.3. Group 17 Elements (Halogens and their Compounds)  7.4. Group 18 Elements  7.5. Properties and Trends in p-Block Elements  7.6. Important compounds of p-block elements (ammonia, phosphine, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid)  7.7. Interhalogen compounds and their applications
  8. d-block and f-block elements  8.1. General Properties of Transition Metals  8.2. Properties of Inner Transition Metals (Lanthanoids and Actinoids)  8.3. Lanthanoid and actinoid contractions  8.4. Coordination Chemistry of d-Block Elements
  9. Coordination compounds  9.1. Werner's theory and modern concepts  9.2. Coordination number and type of ligand  9.3. Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds  9.4. Isomerism (geometrical and optical) in coordination compounds  9.5. Bonding in Coordination Compounds (Valence Bond Theory and Crystal Field Theory)  9.6. Stability and applications of coordination compounds in medicine and industry
  10. Haloalkanes and haloarenes  10.1. Classification and nomenclature of haloalkanes and haloarenes  10.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes  10.3. Mechanism of Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions (SN1 and SN2)  10.4. Uses and environmental effects (ozone depletion, CFCs)
  11. Alcohol, phenol and ether  11.1. Structure and classification of alcohols, phenols and ethers  11.2. Preparation and properties of alcohols  11.3. Preparation and properties of phenol  11.4. Preparation and properties of ethers  11.5. Chemical Reactions and Uses
  12. Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids  12.1. Structure and nomenclature in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids  12.2. Preparation and properties of aldehydes and ketones  12.3. Chemical reactions in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids (nucleophilic addition, oxidation and reduction)  12.4. Preparation and Properties of Carboxylic Acids  12.5. Chemical Reactions and Uses of Carboxylic Acids
  13. Nitrogen-containing organic compounds  13.1. Amines (classification, structure, basicity)  13.2. Preparation and properties of amines  13.3. Reactions of Amines (Diazotization, Carbylamine Reaction)  13.4. Diazonium salts and their applications in paint industry
  14.1. Carbohydrates (classification and properties)  14.2. Proteins (Structure and Function)  14.3. Enzymes (Mechanism and Function)  14.4. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)  14.5. Vitamins and hormones
  15. Polymer  15.1. Classification of Polymers (Addition, Condensation, Copolymers)  15.2. Types of polymerization (free radical, ionic, condensation)  15.3. Important Polymers and Their Uses  15.4. Biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymers
  16. Chemistry in Everyday Life  16.1. Drugs and their classification (analgesics, antipyretics, antibiotics, antacids)  16.2. Chemicals in food and cosmetics (preservatives, artificial sweeteners, antioxidants)  16.3. Cleaning agents and detergents (soaps, synthetic detergents, surfactants)  16.4. Environmental Chemistry (Pollution, Green Chemistry, Sustainable Chemistry)

Grade 12 ↓


Alcohol, phenol and ether


In organic chemistry, alcohols, phenols, and ethers are three important classes of compounds. Understanding these helps in a variety of applications, including industrial processes, biological systems, and more. This guide aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of these compounds.

Alcohol

Alcohols are organic compounds containing one or more hydroxyl (-OH) groups attached to a carbon atom. The general formula of alcohols can be represented as R-OH, where R is an alkyl group.

Classification of alcohols

Alcohols can be classified based on the number of carbon atoms bonded to the carbon atom bearing the hydroxyl group:

  • Primary alcohol: The carbon with -OH group is attached to only one other carbon (RCH 2 OH). Example: CH 3 CH 2 OH (ethanol).
  • Secondary alcohol: The carbon with -OH group is attached to two other carbons (R 2 CHOH). Example: CH 3 CHOHCH 3 (isopropanol).
  • Tertiary alcohol: The carbon with -OH group is attached to three other carbons (R 3 COH). Example: (CH 3 ) 3 COH (tertiary-butanol).

Properties of alcohol

There is hydrogen bonding between the alcohol molecules, due to which they have higher boiling point than hydrocarbons.

H2O

The solubility of alcohols in water decreases as the length of the carbon chain increases due to the hydrophobic nature of the alkyl chain.

Chemical reactions of alcohols:

  • Combustion: Alcohols burn in air to form carbon dioxide and water.
  • Oxidation: Primary alcohols can be oxidized to form aldehydes and further to carboxylic acids. Secondary alcohols are oxidized to ketones. Tertiary alcohols are not easily oxidized.
1. Primary: RCH 2 OH → RCHO → RCOOH
2. Secondary: R 2 CHOH → R 2 C=O
3. Tertiary: No reaction

Uses of alcohol

Alcohol is used extensively in pharmaceuticals, as a solvent, and in the manufacture of organic compounds. Ethanol is widely used as a fuel and in alcoholic beverages.

Phenol

Phenols are aromatic compounds that have a hydroxyl group attached directly to a benzene ring. Its general formula is C 6 H 5 OH.

Structure and properties of phenol

Phenols are different from alcohols because they contain an aromatic ring. This makes them more acidic than alcohols.

Oh

The acidity of phenol is due to the stable phenoxide ion formed after losing a proton.

Chemical reactions of phenol

Phenols undergo a variety of chemical reactions:

  • Electrophilic aromatic substitution: Phenols readily react with electrophiles at the ortho and para positions of the aromatic ring.
  • Esterification: Phenols can react with acyl chlorides to form esters.

Uses of phenol

Phenol is used in the manufacture of plastics, antiseptics, and pharmaceuticals.

Ether

Ethers are compounds in which one oxygen atom is attached to two alkyl or aryl groups. Their general formula is RO-R'.

Classification of ethers

Ethers may be classified based on the nature of the groups attached to the oxygen:

  • Simple ether: Two identical groups (ROR) such as dimethyl ether.
  • Mixed ether: Two different groups (RO-R') such as ethyl methyl ether.

Properties of ether

Ethers have a lower boiling point than alcohols due to the absence of hydrogen bonding between ether molecules. They are generally nonpolar and are good solvents for nonpolar compounds.

Chemical reactions of ether

  • Splitting by acids: Ethers can be split by strong acids such as hydroiodic acid (HI) to form alcohols and alkyl halides.

Uses of ether

Ether is mainly used as a solvent in laboratories and industries. Diethyl ether is commonly used as an anesthetic.

Understanding the structure, properties and reactions of these compounds is essential for their application in various chemical processes and industries. This comprehensive overview serves as the basis for further studies on alcohols, phenols and ethers.


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Alcohol, phenol and ether

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