Grade 12
  1. Solid state  1.1. Classification of solids  1.2. Crystal Lattice and Unit Cell  1.3. Packing Efficiency  1.4. Density of unit cell  1.5. Imperfections in solids (point and line defects)  1.6. Electrical Properties of Solids (Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors)  1.7. Magnetic Properties of Solids (Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic and Ferromagnetic Materials)
  2. Solution  2.1. Types of Solutions (Homogeneous and Heterogeneous)  2.2. Expressing concentration of solutions (mass %, volume %, molarity, molality, normality, mole fraction)  2.3. Solubility of solids and gases in liquids (Henry's law)  2.4. Raoult's Law and Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions  2.5. Syndrome properties  2.6. Abnormal molar mass and Van't Hoff factor
  3. Electrochemistry  3.1. Electrochemical cells (galvanic and electrolytic cells)  3.2. Galvanic cell and EMF of the cell  3.3. Standard electrode potential and electrochemical series  3.4. Nernst equation and its applications  3.5. Conductivity and electrolytic cells (specific, molar and equivalent conductivity)  3.6. Kohlrausch's law and its applications  3.7. Batteries (primary and secondary cells)  3.8. Corrosion and its prevention
  4. Chemical kinetics  4.1. Rate of chemical reaction  4.2. Factors affecting the reaction rate (concentration, temperature, catalyst, surface area)  4.3. Order and molecularity of the reaction  4.4. Integrated Rate Equations (Zero, First and Second Order)  4.5. Half-life of a reaction  4.6. Collision theory and activation energy  4.7. Arrhenius equation and its applications
  5. Surface chemistry  5.1. Adsorption and its types (Physicosorption and Chemisorption)  5.2. Catalysis and its types (homogeneous and heterogeneous)  5.3. Colloids and their properties (Tyndall effect, Brownian motion, coagulation)  5.4. Emulsions and gels  5.5. Applications of Colloids
  6. General principles and processes of separation of elements  6.1. Presence of metals and minerals  6.2. Concentration of ores (gravity separation, froth flotation, magnetic separation)  6.3. Extraction of raw metals (roasting, calcination, reduction)  6.4. Thermodynamic and electrochemical principles of metallurgy  6.5. Refining of metals
  7. P-block elements  7.1. Group 15 elements (nitrogen and phosphorus)  7.2. Group 16 Elements (Oxygen, Sulphur and their Compounds)  7.3. Group 17 Elements (Halogens and their Compounds)  7.4. Group 18 Elements  7.5. Properties and Trends in p-Block Elements  7.6. Important compounds of p-block elements (ammonia, phosphine, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid)  7.7. Interhalogen compounds and their applications
  8. d-block and f-block elements  8.1. General Properties of Transition Metals  8.2. Properties of Inner Transition Metals (Lanthanoids and Actinoids)  8.3. Lanthanoid and actinoid contractions  8.4. Coordination Chemistry of d-Block Elements
  9. Coordination compounds  9.1. Werner's theory and modern concepts  9.2. Coordination number and type of ligand  9.3. Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds  9.4. Isomerism (geometrical and optical) in coordination compounds  9.5. Bonding in Coordination Compounds (Valence Bond Theory and Crystal Field Theory)  9.6. Stability and applications of coordination compounds in medicine and industry
  10. Haloalkanes and haloarenes  10.1. Classification and nomenclature of haloalkanes and haloarenes  10.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes  10.3. Mechanism of Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions (SN1 and SN2)  10.4. Uses and environmental effects (ozone depletion, CFCs)
  11. Alcohol, phenol and ether  11.1. Structure and classification of alcohols, phenols and ethers  11.2. Preparation and properties of alcohols  11.3. Preparation and properties of phenol  11.4. Preparation and properties of ethers  11.5. Chemical Reactions and Uses
  12. Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids  12.1. Structure and nomenclature in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids  12.2. Preparation and properties of aldehydes and ketones  12.3. Chemical reactions in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids (nucleophilic addition, oxidation and reduction)  12.4. Preparation and Properties of Carboxylic Acids  12.5. Chemical Reactions and Uses of Carboxylic Acids
  13. Nitrogen-containing organic compounds  13.1. Amines (classification, structure, basicity)  13.2. Preparation and properties of amines  13.3. Reactions of Amines (Diazotization, Carbylamine Reaction)  13.4. Diazonium salts and their applications in paint industry
  14.1. Carbohydrates (classification and properties)  14.2. Proteins (Structure and Function)  14.3. Enzymes (Mechanism and Function)  14.4. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)  14.5. Vitamins and hormones
  15. Polymer  15.1. Classification of Polymers (Addition, Condensation, Copolymers)  15.2. Types of polymerization (free radical, ionic, condensation)  15.3. Important Polymers and Their Uses  15.4. Biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymers
  16. Chemistry in Everyday Life  16.1. Drugs and their classification (analgesics, antipyretics, antibiotics, antacids)  16.2. Chemicals in food and cosmetics (preservatives, artificial sweeteners, antioxidants)  16.3. Cleaning agents and detergents (soaps, synthetic detergents, surfactants)  16.4. Environmental Chemistry (Pollution, Green Chemistry, Sustainable Chemistry)

Grade 12 → d-block and f-block elements ↓


Properties of Inner Transition Metals (Lanthanoids and Actinoids)


The inner transition metals consist of two series: the lanthanoids and the actinoids. These elements are found in f-block of the periodic table and are characterized by having electrons filled in their 4f and 5f orbitals, respectively. Although they are less discussed than d-block transition elements, the inner transition metals have interesting properties and important applications that are essential to many industries.

Lanthanoids

The lanthanoids, also known as lanthanides, include elements with atomic numbers from 57 to 71, starting with lanthanum (La) and ending with lutetium (Lu). Below is a sequential list of these elements:

Lanthanum (La), Cerium (Ce), Praseodymium (Pr), Neodymium (Nd), Promethium (Pm), Samarium (Sm),
Europium (Eu), Gadolinium (Gd), Terbium (Tb), Dysprosium (Dy), Holmium (Ho), Erbium (Er),
Thulium (Tm), Ytterbium (Yb), Lutetium (Lu)

These elements are famous for their lustrous silvery appearance and high melting points. The lanthanoids are highly reactive, especially at high temperatures or when finely divided. Their reactivity is similar to that of calcium or magnesium in many respects.

Electron configuration

The electrons of the lanthanoids pair up in 4f orbitals. For example, the electron configuration of cerium (Ce, atomic number 58) can be written as:

[Xe] 4f 1 5d 1 6s 2

The addition of electrons to 4f subshell usually does not cause any significant change in chemical behavior in the series, because 4f electrons are not involved in bonding like the valence electrons.

General properties of lanthanoids

Lanthanoids show some common features:

  • Metallic nature: All lanthanoids are metals and show typical metallic properties like malleability, ductility and good electrical conductivity.
  • High density and melting point: They have high density and melting point.
  • Variable oxidation states: Lanthanoids mostly show +3 oxidation states, though some show +2 and +4 states also.
  • Magnetic properties: Many lanthanoids are paramagnetic due to unpaired electrons.
Common oxidation states of lanthanoids +2 +3 +4

Actinoids

The actinoids include elements with atomic numbers from 89 to 103, ranging from actinium (Ac) to lawrencium (Lr). The sequential list of actinoid elements is as follows:

Actinium (Ac), Thorium (Th), Protactinium (Pa), Uranium (U), Neptunium (Np), Plutonium (Pu),
Americium (Am), Curium (Cm), Berkelium (Bk), Californian (Cf), Einsteinium (Es), Fermium (Fm),
Mendelevium (Md), Nobelium (No), Lawrencium (Lr)

Actinoids are unique for their ability to form more complex ions than lanthanoids and to exhibit a wider range of oxidation states. They are primarily characterized by radioactive properties and function more prominently in nuclear reaction settings.

Electron configuration

In the actinoids, 5f orbitals are filled. For example, the electron configuration for uranium (U, atomic number 92) is:

[Rn] 5f 3 6d 1 7s 2

Due to the involvement of 5f subshell, actinoids often exhibit variable and rich chemistry with potential complexities, in contrast to their lanthanoid counterparts.

General properties of actinoids

Actinoids have several common features:

  • Radioactivity: Most actinoids are radioactive, some of which have very short half-lives.
  • Metallic nature: All of them are metals and have physical properties similar to lanthanoids.
  • Variable oxidation states: Actinoids show a variety of oxidation states ranging from +3 to +6 or even higher in some cases.
  • Magnetic properties: Due to unpaired 5f electrons, many actinoids show magnetic properties.
Oxidation states of actinoids +3 +4 +5/+6

Chemical reactivity of inner transition metals

The inner transition metals are known for their reactivity. Lanthanoids are known to rapidly form oxides and hydroxides when exposed to air. Their oxides, such as lanthanum La 2 O 3, are basic. In contrast, actinoids, especially the lower members of the group, such as uranium (U) and plutonium (Pu), are more reactive and form more complex compounds due to their higher oxidation states and serve as important sources in the field of nuclear energy.

Applications of lanthanoids and actinoids

Lanthanoids

  • Alloys: Lanthanoids are often used in alloys to improve properties such as strength and workability. Mishmetal, which contains several lanthanoids, is used in lightweight flint.
  • Glass and optics: Some lanthanoids are used to color glass and in optical instruments. Neodymium glass is known for its ability to filter infrared radiation.
  • Electronics: Lanthanoids such as europium (Eu) are used in cathode ray tubes and LEDs due to their luminous properties.

Actinoids

  • Nuclear energy: Uranium and plutonium are the key elements in nuclear reactors and atomic bombs because of their fission capability.
  • Medicine: Actinoids such as radium (Ra) were historically used in the treatment of cancer and are still relevant in some diagnostic techniques.
  • Research: Actinoids, especially synthetic actinoids such as curium (Cm), provide insights into nuclear chemistry and materials science.

Conclusion

The inner transition metals, which include both lanthanoids and actinoids, offer vast and valuable properties due to their unique electron configurations. While lanthanoids are used significantly in industries ranging from electronics to metallurgy due to their magnetic and optical properties, actinoids hold their prominence in nuclear energy and research mainly due to their complex chemistry and radioactivity. Understanding the properties and applications of these inner transition metals enriches our understanding of chemical phenomena and promotes technological advancement.


Grade 12 → 8.2


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General Properties of Transition Metals
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Lanthanoid and actinoid contractions

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Properties of Inner Transition Metals (Lanthanoids and Actinoids)

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