Grade 12
  1. Solid state  1.1. Classification of solids  1.2. Crystal Lattice and Unit Cell  1.3. Packing Efficiency  1.4. Density of unit cell  1.5. Imperfections in solids (point and line defects)  1.6. Electrical Properties of Solids (Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors)  1.7. Magnetic Properties of Solids (Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic and Ferromagnetic Materials)
  2. Solution  2.1. Types of Solutions (Homogeneous and Heterogeneous)  2.2. Expressing concentration of solutions (mass %, volume %, molarity, molality, normality, mole fraction)  2.3. Solubility of solids and gases in liquids (Henry's law)  2.4. Raoult's Law and Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions  2.5. Syndrome properties  2.6. Abnormal molar mass and Van't Hoff factor
  3. Electrochemistry  3.1. Electrochemical cells (galvanic and electrolytic cells)  3.2. Galvanic cell and EMF of the cell  3.3. Standard electrode potential and electrochemical series  3.4. Nernst equation and its applications  3.5. Conductivity and electrolytic cells (specific, molar and equivalent conductivity)  3.6. Kohlrausch's law and its applications  3.7. Batteries (primary and secondary cells)  3.8. Corrosion and its prevention
  4. Chemical kinetics  4.1. Rate of chemical reaction  4.2. Factors affecting the reaction rate (concentration, temperature, catalyst, surface area)  4.3. Order and molecularity of the reaction  4.4. Integrated Rate Equations (Zero, First and Second Order)  4.5. Half-life of a reaction  4.6. Collision theory and activation energy  4.7. Arrhenius equation and its applications
  5. Surface chemistry  5.1. Adsorption and its types (Physicosorption and Chemisorption)  5.2. Catalysis and its types (homogeneous and heterogeneous)  5.3. Colloids and their properties (Tyndall effect, Brownian motion, coagulation)  5.4. Emulsions and gels  5.5. Applications of Colloids
  6. General principles and processes of separation of elements  6.1. Presence of metals and minerals  6.2. Concentration of ores (gravity separation, froth flotation, magnetic separation)  6.3. Extraction of raw metals (roasting, calcination, reduction)  6.4. Thermodynamic and electrochemical principles of metallurgy  6.5. Refining of metals
  7. P-block elements  7.1. Group 15 elements (nitrogen and phosphorus)  7.2. Group 16 Elements (Oxygen, Sulphur and their Compounds)  7.3. Group 17 Elements (Halogens and their Compounds)  7.4. Group 18 Elements  7.5. Properties and Trends in p-Block Elements  7.6. Important compounds of p-block elements (ammonia, phosphine, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid)  7.7. Interhalogen compounds and their applications
  8. d-block and f-block elements  8.1. General Properties of Transition Metals  8.2. Properties of Inner Transition Metals (Lanthanoids and Actinoids)  8.3. Lanthanoid and actinoid contractions  8.4. Coordination Chemistry of d-Block Elements
  9. Coordination compounds  9.1. Werner's theory and modern concepts  9.2. Coordination number and type of ligand  9.3. Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds  9.4. Isomerism (geometrical and optical) in coordination compounds  9.5. Bonding in Coordination Compounds (Valence Bond Theory and Crystal Field Theory)  9.6. Stability and applications of coordination compounds in medicine and industry
  10. Haloalkanes and haloarenes  10.1. Classification and nomenclature of haloalkanes and haloarenes  10.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes  10.3. Mechanism of Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions (SN1 and SN2)  10.4. Uses and environmental effects (ozone depletion, CFCs)
  11. Alcohol, phenol and ether  11.1. Structure and classification of alcohols, phenols and ethers  11.2. Preparation and properties of alcohols  11.3. Preparation and properties of phenol  11.4. Preparation and properties of ethers  11.5. Chemical Reactions and Uses
  12. Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids  12.1. Structure and nomenclature in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids  12.2. Preparation and properties of aldehydes and ketones  12.3. Chemical reactions in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids (nucleophilic addition, oxidation and reduction)  12.4. Preparation and Properties of Carboxylic Acids  12.5. Chemical Reactions and Uses of Carboxylic Acids
  13. Nitrogen-containing organic compounds  13.1. Amines (classification, structure, basicity)  13.2. Preparation and properties of amines  13.3. Reactions of Amines (Diazotization, Carbylamine Reaction)  13.4. Diazonium salts and their applications in paint industry
  14.1. Carbohydrates (classification and properties)  14.2. Proteins (Structure and Function)  14.3. Enzymes (Mechanism and Function)  14.4. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)  14.5. Vitamins and hormones
  15. Polymer  15.1. Classification of Polymers (Addition, Condensation, Copolymers)  15.2. Types of polymerization (free radical, ionic, condensation)  15.3. Important Polymers and Their Uses  15.4. Biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymers
  16. Chemistry in Everyday Life  16.1. Drugs and their classification (analgesics, antipyretics, antibiotics, antacids)  16.2. Chemicals in food and cosmetics (preservatives, artificial sweeteners, antioxidants)  16.3. Cleaning agents and detergents (soaps, synthetic detergents, surfactants)  16.4. Environmental Chemistry (Pollution, Green Chemistry, Sustainable Chemistry)

Grade 12 → Polymer ↓


Important Polymers and Their Uses


Polymers are large molecules composed of repeated subunits, known as monomers. They play important roles in our daily lives and can be found in many forms, from natural to synthetic. Understanding these macromolecules is an important part of chemistry, especially in terms of their applications and importance. This lesson will explore several important polymers, both natural and synthetic, along with their uses and characteristics.

Natural polymers

Natural polymers are those that are found in nature and can be extracted. They are essential for biological processes and structural components. Examples of natural polymers include proteins, nucleic acids, cellulose, and rubber.

1. Protein

Proteins are complex polymers made up of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. They are important for many biological functions, including enzymatic activities, structural roles, and the transport of molecules. In the human body, proteins such as hemoglobin carry oxygen, while enzymes regulate biochemical reactions.

        NH 2 -CHR-COOH + NH 2 -CHR'-COOH → NH 2 -CHR-CONH-CHR'-COOH + H 2 O

2. Nucleic acids

Nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA are polymers that store and transfer genetic information. DNA is composed of nucleotides that are arranged in a double helix structure. RNA performs various functions in coding, decoding and regulation of genes.

        Nucleotide Unit: 
        [sugar-phosphate-base]

3. Cellulose

Cellulose is a polysaccharide found in the cell walls of plants. It is composed of glucose monomers and provides structural support to plant cells. Humans use cellulose to make paper, and it is also used in the textile industry to make materials such as rayon and cellophane.

, Glucose units ,

4. Natural rubber

Natural rubber is an elastic polymer derived from latex, a milky fluid produced by certain plants. It is composed primarily of the polymer polyisoprene. Natural rubber is used for its flexibility and resiliency in products such as tires, shoes, and medical devices.

        Isoprene unit: 
        C 5 H 8

Synthetic polymers

Synthetic polymers are man-made polymers derived from petroleum oil. They have a wide range of applications due to their versatility, durability, and cost-effectiveness. Important synthetic polymers include polyethylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, and nylon.

1. Polyethylene

Polyethylene (or polyethene) is the most common plastic, best known for its use in packaging materials such as grocery bags and bottles. It is formed by the polymerization of ethylene molecules. Polyethylene varies from low density to high density, which affects its properties and uses.

        (C 2 H 4 ) n
CH 2 CH 2 ,

2. Polystyrene

Polystyrene is a polymer used to make many consumer products, including containers and disposable cutlery. It is synthesized from the monomer styrene, which can be expanded to form foam products such as Styrofoam.

        (C 8 H 8 ) n

3. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

PVC is a durable material used in the manufacture of pipes, flooring, and roofing because it is resistant to environmental degradation and chemicals. It is synthesized from vinyl chloride monomers.

        (C 2 H 3 Cl) n
CH 2 Chlorine Chowdhary Chlorine ,

4. Nylon

Nylon is a type of synthetic polymer commonly used in textiles, automotive parts, and ropes. It is known for its strength and elasticity. Nylon is a generic designation for a family of synthetic polymers based on aliphatic polyamides.

        Nylon 6: [-NH-(CH 2 ) 5 -CO-] n
        Nylon 6,6: [-NH-(CH 2 ) 6 -NH-CO-(CH 2 ) 4 -CO-] N

In short, polymers, whether natural or synthetic, have shaped the way we live our lives by providing versatility and a wide range of applications in various fields. From building materials and clothing to biological functions and technological innovations, the importance of polymers cannot be underestimated. Their study provides information about their continuous evolution and adaptation in our daily lives.


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Types of polymerization (free radical, ionic, condensation)
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Biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymers

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Important Polymers and Their Uses

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