Grade 12
  1. Solid state  1.1. Classification of solids  1.2. Crystal Lattice and Unit Cell  1.3. Packing Efficiency  1.4. Density of unit cell  1.5. Imperfections in solids (point and line defects)  1.6. Electrical Properties of Solids (Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors)  1.7. Magnetic Properties of Solids (Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic and Ferromagnetic Materials)
  2. Solution  2.1. Types of Solutions (Homogeneous and Heterogeneous)  2.2. Expressing concentration of solutions (mass %, volume %, molarity, molality, normality, mole fraction)  2.3. Solubility of solids and gases in liquids (Henry's law)  2.4. Raoult's Law and Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions  2.5. Syndrome properties  2.6. Abnormal molar mass and Van't Hoff factor
  3. Electrochemistry  3.1. Electrochemical cells (galvanic and electrolytic cells)  3.2. Galvanic cell and EMF of the cell  3.3. Standard electrode potential and electrochemical series  3.4. Nernst equation and its applications  3.5. Conductivity and electrolytic cells (specific, molar and equivalent conductivity)  3.6. Kohlrausch's law and its applications  3.7. Batteries (primary and secondary cells)  3.8. Corrosion and its prevention
  4. Chemical kinetics  4.1. Rate of chemical reaction  4.2. Factors affecting the reaction rate (concentration, temperature, catalyst, surface area)  4.3. Order and molecularity of the reaction  4.4. Integrated Rate Equations (Zero, First and Second Order)  4.5. Half-life of a reaction  4.6. Collision theory and activation energy  4.7. Arrhenius equation and its applications
  5. Surface chemistry  5.1. Adsorption and its types (Physicosorption and Chemisorption)  5.2. Catalysis and its types (homogeneous and heterogeneous)  5.3. Colloids and their properties (Tyndall effect, Brownian motion, coagulation)  5.4. Emulsions and gels  5.5. Applications of Colloids
  6. General principles and processes of separation of elements  6.1. Presence of metals and minerals  6.2. Concentration of ores (gravity separation, froth flotation, magnetic separation)  6.3. Extraction of raw metals (roasting, calcination, reduction)  6.4. Thermodynamic and electrochemical principles of metallurgy  6.5. Refining of metals
  7. P-block elements  7.1. Group 15 elements (nitrogen and phosphorus)  7.2. Group 16 Elements (Oxygen, Sulphur and their Compounds)  7.3. Group 17 Elements (Halogens and their Compounds)  7.4. Group 18 Elements  7.5. Properties and Trends in p-Block Elements  7.6. Important compounds of p-block elements (ammonia, phosphine, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid)  7.7. Interhalogen compounds and their applications
  8. d-block and f-block elements  8.1. General Properties of Transition Metals  8.2. Properties of Inner Transition Metals (Lanthanoids and Actinoids)  8.3. Lanthanoid and actinoid contractions  8.4. Coordination Chemistry of d-Block Elements
  9. Coordination compounds  9.1. Werner's theory and modern concepts  9.2. Coordination number and type of ligand  9.3. Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds  9.4. Isomerism (geometrical and optical) in coordination compounds  9.5. Bonding in Coordination Compounds (Valence Bond Theory and Crystal Field Theory)  9.6. Stability and applications of coordination compounds in medicine and industry
  10. Haloalkanes and haloarenes  10.1. Classification and nomenclature of haloalkanes and haloarenes  10.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes  10.3. Mechanism of Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions (SN1 and SN2)  10.4. Uses and environmental effects (ozone depletion, CFCs)
  11. Alcohol, phenol and ether  11.1. Structure and classification of alcohols, phenols and ethers  11.2. Preparation and properties of alcohols  11.3. Preparation and properties of phenol  11.4. Preparation and properties of ethers  11.5. Chemical Reactions and Uses
  12. Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids  12.1. Structure and nomenclature in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids  12.2. Preparation and properties of aldehydes and ketones  12.3. Chemical reactions in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids (nucleophilic addition, oxidation and reduction)  12.4. Preparation and Properties of Carboxylic Acids  12.5. Chemical Reactions and Uses of Carboxylic Acids
  13. Nitrogen-containing organic compounds  13.1. Amines (classification, structure, basicity)  13.2. Preparation and properties of amines  13.3. Reactions of Amines (Diazotization, Carbylamine Reaction)  13.4. Diazonium salts and their applications in paint industry
  14.1. Carbohydrates (classification and properties)  14.2. Proteins (Structure and Function)  14.3. Enzymes (Mechanism and Function)  14.4. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)  14.5. Vitamins and hormones
  15. Polymer  15.1. Classification of Polymers (Addition, Condensation, Copolymers)  15.2. Types of polymerization (free radical, ionic, condensation)  15.3. Important Polymers and Their Uses  15.4. Biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymers
  16. Chemistry in Everyday Life  16.1. Drugs and their classification (analgesics, antipyretics, antibiotics, antacids)  16.2. Chemicals in food and cosmetics (preservatives, artificial sweeteners, antioxidants)  16.3. Cleaning agents and detergents (soaps, synthetic detergents, surfactants)  16.4. Environmental Chemistry (Pollution, Green Chemistry, Sustainable Chemistry)

Grade 12 ↓


Electrochemistry


Electrochemistry is a branch of chemistry that studies the relationship between electricity and chemical change. It involves understanding the chemical processes that either generate electric current or are driven by electric current. Electrochemistry plays a vital role in a wide variety of modern technological applications, from batteries and fuel cells to electroplating and corrosion prevention.

Basic concepts

Oxidation and reduction

At the core of electrochemistry are the processes of oxidation and reduction, collectively called redox reactions. In simple terms, oxidation is the loss of electrons, while reduction is the gain of electrons. These processes occur simultaneously: when one substance is oxidized, the other is reduced.

Oxidation: Zn → Zn 2+ + 2e - Reduction: Cu 2+ + 2e - → Cu

Electrochemical cells

An electrochemical cell is a device capable of generating electrical energy from chemical reactions or facilitating chemical reactions through the introduction of electrical energy. There are two main types of electrochemical cells: galvanic (or voltaic) cells and electrolytic cells.

Anode Cathode Salt Bridge

In the visual example above, the blue bar represents the anode, where oxidation occurs, and the green bar represents the cathode, where reduction occurs. The two are connected by a salt bridge, represented by the lines and the small box below, which allows the flow of ions between the two half-cells.

Galvanic cells

A galvanic cell, also known as a voltaic cell, is a device in which chemical energy is converted into electrical energy. This type of cell works automatically, producing an electric current due to a redox reaction. An example of this is the famous Daniel cell.

Example: Daniel cell

The Daniel cell has a zinc electrode in a zinc sulfate solution and a copper electrode in a copper (II) sulfate solution. These solutions are connected by a salt bridge that allows the flow of ions but prevents mixing of the different solutions.

Zn(s) + Cu 2+ (aq) → Zn 2+ (aq) + Cu(s)

In this reaction, zinc metal is oxidized to zinc ions, releasing electrons which travel through the external circuit to reach the copper ions, converting them into copper metal.

E - External Circuit Salt bridge

Electrolytic cell

An electrolytic cell uses electrical energy to drive a non-spontaneous chemical reaction. This process is the opposite of what happens in a galvanic cell. Electrolysis is the common reaction that occurs in electrolytic cells and is used in a variety of applications, such as electroplating and the manufacture of chemical compounds.

Example: Electrolysis of water

In the electrolysis of water, electric current is passed through water to produce hydrogen and oxygen gases.

2H 2 O(l) → 2H 2 (g) + O 2 (g)

In this process, water is decomposed into its basic components, hydrogen and oxygen, using electric current.

Anode Cathode Power Source

Here, the electrostation shows the electrolytic cell setup. The red bar represents the anode, and the blue bar is the cathode, which is connected to the external power source that drives the reaction forward.

Applications of electrochemistry

Batteries

Batteries are one of the most prevalent applications of electrochemistry. They work on the basis of galvanic cells. A common type is the lithium-ion battery which is used in many electronic devices.

Fuel cells

Fuel cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy through electrochemical reactions, often using hydrogen and oxygen. They are used in a variety of applications, from powering vehicles to providing backup energy supplies.

Electricity

Electroplating involves coating a material with a thin layer of metal using the principles of electrolysis. This process is often used to improve the appearance and corrosion resistance of items such as jewellery, cutlery and automotive parts.

Corrosion prevention

Electrochemistry is also used to prevent metal corrosion. Techniques such as cathodic protection apply a small electric current to prevent metal from corroding when exposed to the elements.

Conclusion

Electrochemistry explores the fascinating interplay between chemical reactions and electricity and is crucial to many technological advances and everyday applications. Its fundamental principles are essential to the development of sustainable energy solutions, modern electronics, and many industrial processes. Understanding electrochemical systems is crucial for developing new technologies and improving existing ones.


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Electrochemistry

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