Grade 12
  1. Solid state  1.1. Classification of solids  1.2. Crystal Lattice and Unit Cell  1.3. Packing Efficiency  1.4. Density of unit cell  1.5. Imperfections in solids (point and line defects)  1.6. Electrical Properties of Solids (Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors)  1.7. Magnetic Properties of Solids (Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic and Ferromagnetic Materials)
  2. Solution  2.1. Types of Solutions (Homogeneous and Heterogeneous)  2.2. Expressing concentration of solutions (mass %, volume %, molarity, molality, normality, mole fraction)  2.3. Solubility of solids and gases in liquids (Henry's law)  2.4. Raoult's Law and Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions  2.5. Syndrome properties  2.6. Abnormal molar mass and Van't Hoff factor
  3. Electrochemistry  3.1. Electrochemical cells (galvanic and electrolytic cells)  3.2. Galvanic cell and EMF of the cell  3.3. Standard electrode potential and electrochemical series  3.4. Nernst equation and its applications  3.5. Conductivity and electrolytic cells (specific, molar and equivalent conductivity)  3.6. Kohlrausch's law and its applications  3.7. Batteries (primary and secondary cells)  3.8. Corrosion and its prevention
  4. Chemical kinetics  4.1. Rate of chemical reaction  4.2. Factors affecting the reaction rate (concentration, temperature, catalyst, surface area)  4.3. Order and molecularity of the reaction  4.4. Integrated Rate Equations (Zero, First and Second Order)  4.5. Half-life of a reaction  4.6. Collision theory and activation energy  4.7. Arrhenius equation and its applications
  5. Surface chemistry  5.1. Adsorption and its types (Physicosorption and Chemisorption)  5.2. Catalysis and its types (homogeneous and heterogeneous)  5.3. Colloids and their properties (Tyndall effect, Brownian motion, coagulation)  5.4. Emulsions and gels  5.5. Applications of Colloids
  6. General principles and processes of separation of elements  6.1. Presence of metals and minerals  6.2. Concentration of ores (gravity separation, froth flotation, magnetic separation)  6.3. Extraction of raw metals (roasting, calcination, reduction)  6.4. Thermodynamic and electrochemical principles of metallurgy  6.5. Refining of metals
  7. P-block elements  7.1. Group 15 elements (nitrogen and phosphorus)  7.2. Group 16 Elements (Oxygen, Sulphur and their Compounds)  7.3. Group 17 Elements (Halogens and their Compounds)  7.4. Group 18 Elements  7.5. Properties and Trends in p-Block Elements  7.6. Important compounds of p-block elements (ammonia, phosphine, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid)  7.7. Interhalogen compounds and their applications
  8. d-block and f-block elements  8.1. General Properties of Transition Metals  8.2. Properties of Inner Transition Metals (Lanthanoids and Actinoids)  8.3. Lanthanoid and actinoid contractions  8.4. Coordination Chemistry of d-Block Elements
  9. Coordination compounds  9.1. Werner's theory and modern concepts  9.2. Coordination number and type of ligand  9.3. Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds  9.4. Isomerism (geometrical and optical) in coordination compounds  9.5. Bonding in Coordination Compounds (Valence Bond Theory and Crystal Field Theory)  9.6. Stability and applications of coordination compounds in medicine and industry
  10. Haloalkanes and haloarenes  10.1. Classification and nomenclature of haloalkanes and haloarenes  10.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes  10.3. Mechanism of Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions (SN1 and SN2)  10.4. Uses and environmental effects (ozone depletion, CFCs)
  11. Alcohol, phenol and ether  11.1. Structure and classification of alcohols, phenols and ethers  11.2. Preparation and properties of alcohols  11.3. Preparation and properties of phenol  11.4. Preparation and properties of ethers  11.5. Chemical Reactions and Uses
  12. Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids  12.1. Structure and nomenclature in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids  12.2. Preparation and properties of aldehydes and ketones  12.3. Chemical reactions in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids (nucleophilic addition, oxidation and reduction)  12.4. Preparation and Properties of Carboxylic Acids  12.5. Chemical Reactions and Uses of Carboxylic Acids
  13. Nitrogen-containing organic compounds  13.1. Amines (classification, structure, basicity)  13.2. Preparation and properties of amines  13.3. Reactions of Amines (Diazotization, Carbylamine Reaction)  13.4. Diazonium salts and their applications in paint industry
  14.1. Carbohydrates (classification and properties)  14.2. Proteins (Structure and Function)  14.3. Enzymes (Mechanism and Function)  14.4. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)  14.5. Vitamins and hormones
  15. Polymer  15.1. Classification of Polymers (Addition, Condensation, Copolymers)  15.2. Types of polymerization (free radical, ionic, condensation)  15.3. Important Polymers and Their Uses  15.4. Biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymers
  16. Chemistry in Everyday Life  16.1. Drugs and their classification (analgesics, antipyretics, antibiotics, antacids)  16.2. Chemicals in food and cosmetics (preservatives, artificial sweeteners, antioxidants)  16.3. Cleaning agents and detergents (soaps, synthetic detergents, surfactants)  16.4. Environmental Chemistry (Pollution, Green Chemistry, Sustainable Chemistry)

Grade 12 ↓


Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids


Aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic acids are important classes of organic compounds that contain carbonyl groups. Understanding their structure, properties, and reactions is important for various applications in organic chemistry and industrial processes.

Aldehyde

Structure and nomenclature

Aldehydes are organic compounds containing a carbonyl group (C=O) in which the carbon atom is bonded to at least one hydrogen atom. The general structure of an aldehyde is represented as R-CHO, where R is a hydrocarbon group or hydrogen.

   Hey
   ,
H - C - R

In terms of nomenclature, aldehydes are named by identifying the longest carbon chain that contains the aldehyde group and replacing the terminal e al of the parent alkane with it. For example, the simplest aldehyde, methanal, is commonly known as formaldehyde.

Example:

  • HCHO: methanal (formaldehyde)
  • CH3CHO: Ethanal (acetaldehyde)
  • CH3CH2CHO: Propanal
H- Hey R

Physical properties

  • Due to the presence of the polar carbonyl group, the boiling point of aldehydes is generally higher than that of hydrocarbons of the same molecular weight.
  • Low molecular weight aldehydes are soluble in water due to their ability to form hydrogen bonds.
  • Aldehydes usually have a characteristic odor.

Chemical reactions

Aldehydes are very reactive compounds due to the presence of electron-deficient carbonyl carbon. Some common reactions are as follows:

1. Oxidation

Aldehydes can be easily oxidized to carboxylic acids. This reaction occurs easily in the presence of oxidizing agents like potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7), permanganate ion, etc.

R-CHO + [O] → R-COOH

2. Shortage

Aldehydes can be reduced to primary alcohols using reducing agents such as sodium borohydride (NaBH4) or lithium aluminum hydride (LiAlH4).

R-CHO + H2 → R-CH2OH

3. Condensation reactions

Aldehydes undergo condensation reactions with compounds containing active hydrogen atoms. An important reaction is the aldol condensation, where two aldehyde molecules combine to form β-hydroxy aldehyde.

2 R-CHO → [R-CH(OH)-CH2CHO]
R' C Hey R"-CH Oh

Ketones

Structure and nomenclature

Ketones also contain a carbonyl group (C=O) like aldehydes. However, the carbonyl carbon in ketones is bonded to two other carbon atoms. The general formula of ketones is R-CO-R', where R and R' are hydrocarbon groups.

   Hey
   ,
R - C - R'

Ketones are named by replacing the terminal e one of the corresponding alkane. The simplest ketone, propanone, is commonly known as acetone.

Example:

  • CH3COCH3: Propanone (acetone)
  • CH3COC2H5: Butanone
  • C2H5COC2H5: Pentan-3-one
R- Hey -R'

Physical properties

  • Ketones have moderate boiling points, generally higher than similar hydrocarbons.
  • Ketones with low molecular weight are soluble in water.
  • Ketones have a variety of odors.

Chemical reactions

Ketones share some similarities with aldehydes in terms of reactivity, but are less reactive towards nucleophilic addition reactions.

1. Shortage

Ketones can be reduced to secondary alcohols using reducing agents such as sodium borohydride or lithium aluminium hydride.

R-CO-R' + H2 → R-CH(OH)-R'

2. Nucleophilic addition reactions

Ketones undergo nucleophilic addition reactions, where the nucleophile attacks the electrophilic carbon atom in the carbonyl group.

R-CO-R' + Neu → R-CHNeu-R'

3. Condensation reactions

Similar to aldehydes, ketones can also undergo aldol condensation reactions under appropriate conditions, forming β-hydroxy ketones.

2 R-CO-R' → [RC(OH)=R'-C-R']
R–CO R' + R-CO R' [R- C (OH)= R'-C-R']

Carboxylic acid

Structure and nomenclature

Carboxylic acids are organic compounds that contain a carboxyl group (-COOH) as the functional group. The general formula is R-COOH, where R can be a hydrogen atom, an alkyl group, or another arene group.

   Hey
   ,
R – C
      ,
       Oh

Carboxylic acids are named by replacing the terminal e oic acid of the parent alkane. The simplest carboxylic acid is methanoic acid, also known as formic acid.

Example:

  • HCOOH: Methanoic acid (formic acid)
  • CH3COOH: Ethanoic acid (acetic acid)
  • CH3CH2COOH: Propanoic acid
R- C Hey Oh

Physical properties

  • Carboxylic acids have high boiling point due to hydrogen bonding between the molecules.
  • Lower carboxylic acids are highly soluble in water.
  • They generally have acidic properties and a characteristic pungent or sour odor.

Chemical reactions

Carboxylic acids are known for their reactivity and ability to undergo a wide range of chemical transformations:

1. Acid-base reactions

Carboxylic acids can deprotonate to form carboxylate ions, which shows their weak acidic nature.

R-COOH ⇌ R- COO- + H +

2. Esterification

In the presence of alcohol and acid catalysts, carboxylic acids react to form esters.

R-COOH + R'OH ⇌ R-COOR' + H2O

3. Shortage

Carboxylic acids can be reduced to primary alcohols using strong reducing agents such as LiAlH4.

R-COOH + H2 → R-CH2OH

4. Formation of anhydride

A carboxylic acid can condense with another carboxylic acid molecule to form an anhydride.

2 R-COOH → R-COO-COR + H2O
R-COOH , R-COOH R-COO-COR + H2O

Conclusion

Aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic acids are fundamental building blocks in organic chemistry. Aldehydes are generally more reactive than ketones because of the hydrogen atom attached to the carbonyl group, which allows them to engage in further reactions such as oxidation. Ketones are generally less reactive due to the two carbon groups attached. Carboxylic acids containing acidic hydroxyl groups can give rise to a variety of reactions, including esterification and reduction.

Understanding these compounds plays a vital role in various chemical industries, including the production of flavors, fragrances, polymers, pharmaceuticals, and many other applications. Therefore, it is important for any aspiring chemist to master their structure, nomenclature, properties, and reactions.


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